Л. І. Мацько, О. М. Мацько 2 страница

7. Born to luxury but dissatisfied with a life of leisure, Florence Nightingale was
endowed with the intelligence of a scientist and the emotional drive of a reformer.
Desiring to help others, she came to focus her efforts on nursing care, studying
hospital reports and books on public health, inspecting hospitals in England and
other parts of Europe, and receiving some degree of nursing training in Germany.
Convinced of the need for reforms in nursing she opened an institution for care
of the sick in London in 1854. Accompanied by 38 carefully selected nurses
Florence Nightingale undertook the nursing of soldiers in the Crimea. She
demonstrated that skilled nursing care and improvements in sanitation in the
military hospital markedly reduced the mortality rates among British soldiers
wounded in the Crimean War. The fame of that achievement spread throughout
the civilized world.

8. Known in Europe by his Latin name Avicenna, Ibn Sina (980— 1037) wrote some of the most renowned works of medicine and philosophy in the Arab world. Born in 980 near Bukhara Avicenna began his education early. When he reached the age of 18, he had completed the study of all the sciences. Moving from patron to patron, Avicenna wrote more than 100 books. Occupied during the day with his duties at court as physician, he spent almost every night with his students composing his works and carrying out scientific discussions related to them. Avicenna composed "Book of healing", a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia, and the "Cannon of Medicine", a comprehensive work summarising the medical knowledge of the day. Translated into Latin around 1150, the "Cannon" became the medical authority for several centuries.

РАЗДЕЛ 6 Герундий (The Gerund)
6.1 Функции герундия

Упражнение 29

А. Найдите в предложениях герундий, который может выполнять функции подлежащего, дополнения или обстоятельства.

Б. Переведите предложения.

1. Studying a human skeleton can reveal important information such as race, medical
history, weight, gender, body size, muscle mass, and age.

2. Listening to the heart is a simple and effective method of cardiac diagnosis.

3. Matching a donor and a recipient for a bone-marrow transplant is hard.

4. Merely having gallstones does not represent a problem as long as the stones
remain small.

5. According to surveys being a doctor is the most highly respected of the professions.

6. In addition to being able to withstand stresses spongy bone is much more lighter
than compact bone.

7. Besides being the largest gland in the body, the liver is perhaps the most versa­
tile. Scientists have identified over 500 functions of the liver.

8. Some patients need a lot of looking after.

9. Treatment of allergies depends on correctly identifying the allergen to which the
patient is sensitive.

10. The doctor advised against going to bed late.

11. The patient was given drugs to prevent the graft being rejected.

12. When the damaged tubules of the kidneys fail to achieve the elimination of fluid,
it, instead of being excreted, collects in the tissues and causes swelling of various
parts of the body.

13. Bacteria are stained before being examined under the microscope.

14. Her illness resulted in her being away from work for several weeks.

15. The abdomen proper differs from the other great cavities in the body being
bounded for the most part by muscles and fasciae.

16. By providing a calcium reserve, the skeleton plays the primary role in the
homeostatic maintenance of normal calcium ion concentration in the body fluids.

17. Infectious hepatitis and serum hepatitis are caused by different viruses (called A
and B) and having had one does not give immunity against an attack of the other.

18. The coccyx, so called from having been compared to a cuckoo's beak, is usually
formed of four small segments of bone, and is the most rudimentary part of the
vertebral column.

6.2 Функции "ing-forms"

Упражнение 30

(обзорное)

А. Проанализируйте структуру каждого предложения и определите его ядро. Определите, какие функ­ции выполняют в предложениях так называемые "ing-forms".

Б. Переведите предложения.

1. From a chemical point of view, a cell is a special collection of molecules, that has
the ability to reproduce itself from the molecules in its surroundings.

2. A cell is enclosed by the plasma membrane, which forms a selective barrier
allowing nutrients to enter and waste products to leave.

3. The nucleus is one of the very greatest importance to the cell's life and the very
centre of its being. It exerts its influence by regulating the amount and types of
protein made in the cell.

4. The most striking characteristics of protoplasm are its vital properties of motion
and nutrition.

5. Maintaining internal organization requires a continual input of energy into the
cell.

6. Being small allows microorganisms high metabolic rates because the surface to
volume ratio increases as the size of cell decreases.

7. When a cell is going to divide, the DNA molecules reproduce themselves by
doubling and splitting lengthwise.

8. The dividing cells begin to differentiate and become muscle cells, skin cells,
nerve cells and so on. Understanding differentiation is one of the most challenging
problems facing scientists.

9. Following division, each cell goes through a typical series of internal changes,
including growth, before it divides again.

10. The cytoplasm is divided, producing two identical daughter cells.

11. In mitosis chromosomes become shorter and the nuclear envelope breaks, releasing
the chromosomes, which duplicate.

12. Embryonic cell division is characterized not only by an increasing but also by the
origin of differentiated cells.

13. Staining a cell kills it, and in examining a stained cell we are examining a corpse
in which all activity has come to an end.

14. Our DNA contains more than 80,000 genes that control all the working of our
bodies.

15. Enzymes are chemicals produced by living cells which have the power of altering
the rate of chemical reactions occuring in the body.

16. Donated cells can attack the patient's body, causing life-threatening graft-versus-
host disease.

17. Our understanding of genetic structure is opening the possibility of diagnosing
and correcting some of those problems.

18. Identifying the individual cell components which carry the hereditary "deter­
miners" and discovering the laws underlying their transmission from generation
to generation was one of the major tasks in cytology.

РАЗДЕЛ 7 Инфинитив (The Infinitive)

7.1 Инфинитив в функции подлежащего,

именной части сказуемого и дополнения.

Упражнение 31

А. Найдите в предложениях инфинитив, который мо­жет выполнять функции подлежащего, дополнения или именной части сказуемого.

Б. Переведите предложения.

1. Many viruses begin to invade cells and multiply near their site of entry.

2. Cartilage is a tough yet flexible tissue which has to resist stresses and strains.

3. The primary function of the central nervous system is to regulate the functi­
oning of the organism.

4. To describe the action of nerve as integrative is, although true, hardly sufficient
for a definition.

5. Another way in which a catalyst may work is to supply a surface on which a
certain reaction can take place very easily.

6. Scientists have been trying to perfect drugs capable of repairing the damage due
to the disease.

7. Shortage of water in the body begins to cause obvious changes when the water is
reduced by about 10 per cent.

8. The aim of the publication is to present up-to-date views on the fundamental
concepts which dominate modern biology.

9. Lung tissue is elastic and in life is in a stretched state, so its normal tendency is
to contract.

10. New solutions to this problem are beginning to appear.

11. The specific function of the nephron is to remove from the blood plasma certain
end products of metabolism.

12. Preventive medicine aims to educate people about how diet, exercise, smoking,
or drugs can affect their health.

7.2 Сложное подлежащее

Упражнение 32

А. Найдите в предложениях конструкцию "Сложное подлежащее". Она состоит из двух частей:

1) существительного в общем падеже или место­
имения в именительном падеже,

2) инфинитива в активной или пассивной форме.

Между двумя частями сложного подлежащего на­ходится сказуемое предложения, которое может быть выражено, например, глаголами физическо­го и умственного восприятия в страдательном за­логе.

Б. На русский язык такие предложения переводятся, начиная со сказуемого, неопределённо-личными предложениями или вводными словами, при этом 1-я часть сложного подлежащего становится под­лежащим, а инфинитив (2-я часть) - сказуемым русского предложения.

Например:

Viruses are known to cause certain diseases.

Известно, что ви р усы вызывают определённые за­болевания.

или

Вирусы, как известно, вызывают определённые заболевания.

В. Переведите предложения.

1. Diabetes is known to have existed from very ancient times, it is found to have
affected the Egyptians some 3000 years ago.

2. Many degenerative disorders of aging, e.g. arthritis, are thought to be disorders
of the immune system.

3. The high levels of sugar in the blood are thought to cause the eye and kidney
damage.

4. The stomach is believed to be independent of the central nervous system.

5. The pituitary has been called the "master gland" because it is believed to be the
endocrinological center of the body.

6. Calcitonin is the hormone produced by the thyroid gland, which is believed to
regulate the level of calcium in the blood.

7. Vitamin D is not considered to affect parathyroid activity.

8. Formerly, blood platelets were not considered to be real cells but were believed
to be dead fragments of cytoplasm derived from certain cells of bone marrow.

9. Essentially, hemostasis can be considered to involve three mechanisms:
agglutination of platelets, constriction of blood vessels and formation of the blood
clot.

10. Children without spleens are said to develop less immunity to infection than they
should.

11. Erythrocytes, when examined under the microscope, are seen to be circular disks,
biconcave in profile.

12. More and more diseases are being found to be caused by smoking.

13. Many diseases have been shown to be caused by microorganisms.

14. Among the 21 mineral elements which have been reported to have been found in
the human body there are at least 14 which are now recognized as doubtless
essential.

Упражнение 33

А. Найдите конструкцию "Причастие II + инфинитив" в функции определения и определяемое слово. Та­кая конструкция представляет собой сокращённый вариант придаточного определительного предло­жения со "Сложным подлежащим" и сказуемым в страдательном залоге, полный вариант которого выглядит следующим образом:

Пример:

Among the drugs known to trigger intestinal bleeding are aspirin and other salicylates. = Among the drugs which are known to trigger intestinal bleeding are aspirin and other salicylates.

Переводить такие конструкции следует как прида­точные определительные предложения, содержа­щие "Сложное подлежащее".

Б. Переведите предложения, применяя правила пе­ревода конструкции "Сложное подлежащее" (см. упр. 32).

1. Among the illnesses known to trigger internal bleeding are peptic ulcers, colon
cancer, inflammatory bowel disease and intestinal parasites such as hook-worm.

2. In the 1960's Dr. Goldstein [,gDl(d)'stam] discovered and isolated a humoral
factor, believed to be a hormone from the thymus, which he named thymosin.

3. The advent of antibiotics and the resultant development of resistant strains of
bacteria have introduced new types of pathogens little known or not previously
thought to be significantly dangerous to man.

4. Once thought to be a rare disease, Reye's syndrome is now listed among the ten
major causes of death in children over one year of age.

5. Once thought to be a rare disorder, primary hyperparathyroidism now ranks with
diabetes mellitus and thyroid disease as one of the most common endocrine
disorders.

6. Once thought to be a rare form of localized bone disease, this disorder is now
diagnozed more frequently because of newer diagnostic techniques, such as bone
scanning, and routine testing of plasma alkaline phosphatase.

7. It was discovered that certain vitamins thought to be simple were made up of
many different components, for example, the vitamin-B complex.

8. The first fluid found to be effective for perfusion of a heart was devised by an
English physician, S. Ringer fringa], and is still known as "Ringer's solution".

9. Cholesterol is a fatty substance thought to be part of the cause of heart disease if
there is too much of it.

10. The second of Bright's diseases is a hemorrhagic disease, believed to be caused by substances created by infections found elsewhere in the body.

Упражнение 34

A. Найдите конструкцию "Сложное подлежащее". Об­
ратите внимание, что сказуемые в предложениях
выражены либо глаголом to be + прилагательное
(likely, sure, certain), либо рядом глаголов в дей­
ствительном залоге: seem, appear, prove, happen,
turn out.

Б. На русский язык такие предложения переводятся согласно правилу: т. е. сказуемое передаётся не­определённо-личным предложением или вводны­ми словами, существительное становится подле­жащим, а инфинитив - сказуемым русского пред­ложения.

Например:

In molecular biology much is likely to become clear within the next decade.

Весьма вероятно, что многое в молекулярной био­логии станет ясным в следующем десятилетии.

The appendix seems to have no function in humans.

По-видимому, аппендикс у человека не выполняет никакой функции.

B. Переведите предложения.

1. The response to a given dose of a drug is likely to vary when it is given to
different persons.

2. Some twenty different amino acids occur in proteins and each protein molecule
is likely to contain all of them arranged in a variety of sequences.

3. Persons with 0-blood are sometimes called universal donors since their red cells
are unlikely to be agglutinated by the blood of any other groups.

4. Joints that move freely and easily are less likely to become injured than joints
that cannot move through a full range of motion.

5. Because most mutations occur during DNA replication, they are most likely to
involve cells that are undergoing cell division.

6. The amoeba appears to be the simplest possible living animal, an independent
cell with nucleus and cytoplasm but no permanent organelles.

7. In plants there does not appear to be antibody production, however, there is
native immunity to disease.

8. Ancient writers such as Galen ['geilan] (A.D. 130 — 200) recognized three principal
organs — the heart, the brain, and the liver — and often the liver seemed to be
the most important.

9. Children who for one reason or another happen to endure a shortage of vitamin
D have bones that do not properly ossify.

10. Vitamin D was formerly thought to stimulate the actual formation of bone, but it now appears to act only indirectly, by increasing the absorption of calcium from the food into the blood.

7.3 Сложное дополнение

Упражнение 35

А. Найдите в предложениях конструкцию "Сложное дополнение", которая состоит из существительно­го в общем падеже (или местоимения в объектном падеже) и инфинитива с частицей to или без неё.

Пример:

Some scientists consider bacteria to be plants.

подлежащее сказуемое сложное

дополнение

Б. На русский язык такая конструкция переводится придаточным дополнительным предложением с союзами: "что", "чтобы", "как".

Например:

Some scientists consider bacteria to be plants.

Некоторые учёные считают, что бактерии являют­ся растениями.

В. Переведите предложения.

1. Many investigators have considered the allergic response to be brought about by
an acquired sensitivity only to proteins.

2. We know hypofunction of the adrenals to cause a severe disease.

3. Close examination of the compact tissue shows it to be extremely porous.

4. Studies have shown massage to have positive effects on conditions from colic to
hyperactivity to diabetes to migraines.

5. A lack of insulin caused by diabetes mellitus makes the level of glucose in the
blood rise.

6. Most people have experienced how feeling nervous can make the hands and legs
tremble and the hearts beat faster.

7. The primary separation of blood cells using a centrifuge allows red blood cells,
blood platelets and granulocytes to be separated from each other.

8. Toxicity tests indicate the product to be completely harmless.

9. An insufficient supply of vitamin D in the body causes a person's bones to soften.

10. Insulin causes the glucose to be used for energy release or stored as glycogen in
the liver.

11. Enzymes are produced by living cells and cause particular chemical reactions to
happen while not being changed themselves.

12. The presence of food, especially fats, in the duodenum and hormonal influences
cause the gallbladder to contract, releasing bile to the common duct.

13. The abscess breaks through the skin, allowing the pus to drain.

14. In response to an increase in the hydrogen ion concentration in body fluids, the
respiratory rate increases, causing more dioxide to be released from the lungs.

15. The French philosopher Descartes [deikd:t] (1596—1650) believed the pineal
gland to be "the seat of the soul" but we now know it to be an endocrine gland
that has extensive influences on the body.

16. A nerve impulse travels as a wave of excitation down the nerve fiber and is
transmitted to the muscle, spreading over the fibers and causing them to con­
tract.

17. Periodontitis is the inflammatory condition, which affects 10 per cent of the
world's population, destroys bone and connective tissue in the jaw, causing teeth
to fall out.

18. Sunlight can cause more melanin (the main pigment of the skin) to be produced,
which results in the skin changing color.

19. Remote controls used during robotic coronary bypass surgery require the surgeon
to sit a few feet from the patient. A monitor allows the other members of the
surgical team to watch how the operation is proceeding.

20. A chemical imbalance in a heart muscle can cause the heart to cease pumping
blood, which in turn will cause other tissues and organs to cease functioning.

21. Enzymes work by binding molecules so that they are held in a particular geometric
configuration that allows the reaction to occur.

22. In the past, to bleed someone was to make them lose blood, as a cure for an
illness.

7.4 Инфинитив-обстоятельство цели

Упражнение 36

А. Найдите в предложениях инфинитив в функции обстоятельства цели. Такое обстоятельство может стоять до или после ядра предложения (иногда перед инфинитивом может использоваться выра­жение in order to).

Примеры:

1. Cells need oxygen to survive.

2. The heart needs oxygen in order to function.

3. To live and to do its work a cell needs oxygen.

4. In order to carry on their metabolic activities all
body cells need oxygen.

Б. Независимо от наличия или отсутствия словосоче­тания in order to в английском предложении, на русский язык инфинитив в функции обстоятельства цели всегда переводится словами: "для", "для того, чтобы", "чтобы".

В. Переведите предложения.

1. The muscles transform chemical energy into mechanical energy to support and
move the body.

2. From very early times surgeons have used drugs to lessen pain during operations.

3. To perform its vital functions, blood must be kept in motion.

4. To conserve heat the blood vessels of the skin contract, to lose heat they dilate.

5. In order to contract, skeletal muscle must be stimulated.

6. In order to grow, harden, and repair bones must have an adequate supply of
minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus.

7. To keep the heart beating the sino-atrial node in the right atrium sends im­
pulses through the two atria, causing atrial systole.

8. In order to keep blood moving back towards the heart, veins have valves which
prevent the back flow of blood and keep the blood moving in one direction.

9. The capillaries exchange the oxygen for waste matter, such as carbon dioxide,
which is taken back to the lungs to be expelled.

10. A large volume of blood is carried by the portal vein from the stomach, intestine
and spleen to the liver to be chemically processed before returning to the heart.

11. The oxygenated blood leaves the alveolar capillaries and returns to the heart to
be discharged into the systemic circuit.

12. To be accepted by scientists, the results of any experiments designed to test the
hypothesis must be repeatable and capable of being duplicated by others.

13. The end products of protein digestion, amino acids, pass into the blood, some to
be used as structural proteins for the building of body tissue, others to be used as
enzymes, and the rest to be carried to various parts of the body as a reserve.

14. In order to minimize rejection and improve the chances of survival of a trans­
planted organ, efforts are made to match as closely as possible the blood types
and tissue types of the donor and recipient.

15. To stop food from going into the trachea and lungs, a flap of tissue called the
epiglottis moves over the opening (the glottis) during swallowing.

Упражнение 37

А. Найдите инфинитив. Определите, в какой из двух функций он используется: как подлежащее или как обстоятельство цели. Для этого надо найти сказу­емое и установить, с чем оно согласуется, то есть что является в предложении подлежащим.

Пример:

То produce a hormone rich in iodine is the chief function of the thyroid gland.

To produce an effect a drug must reach its target in adequate amounts.

Б. Переведите предложения.

1. To maintain the pH within normal range there are substances present in blood
that act as buffers.

2. To maintain normal acid-base balance is the main task of the kidneys.

3. To prevent backflow of blood, the heart is equipped with valves that permit the
blood to flow in only one direction.

4. To develop a vaccine against any parasite is a long-term effort that can take 20 to
30 years.

5. To suture the wound properly is essential for healing the wound.

6. To stay alive all the cells in the body need continuing supplies of oxygen, energy
and nutrient.

7. To make a diagnosis one must know the symptoms of the disease.

8. To determine the proportions of various chemical elements present in the hu­
man body is comparatively simple.

9. The Scanner examines the body in slices, 13 mm thick. To take a picture of a
complete slice takes only 20 seconds.

10. To prevent infection Lister ['hsta] (1827 — 1912) invented methods of using anticeptics during surgical operations.

7.5 Инфинитив-определение

Упражнение 38

A. Найдите инфинитив в функции определения, кото­
рое всегда стоит после определяемого существи­
тельного.

Б. На русский язык такое определение переводится либо причастным оборотом, либо придаточным определительным предложением.

Например: The salts to form stones are always present in the urine.

Соли, образующие камни.... или

Соли, которые образуют камни....

B. Переведите предложения.

1. The heart is the first organ to develop in the embryo.

2. The clavicle is the first bone of the skeleton to begin ossifying.

3. The first brain cells to die are those in the cerebral cortex.

4. The easiest tissue to transplant is blood.

5. Insulin is the only hormone to lower blood glucose level directly.

6. Scientists have developed many vaccines to use in the prevention of serious
diseases.

7. Bacteria are thought to represent the first organisms to have arisen on earth from
which all other organisms are descended.

8. Artificial respiration is a technique to provide air to an individual whose respiratory
muscles are no longer functioning.

9. There is evidence to suggest that some foods can relieve or worsen the symptoms
of existing arthritis for some people.

10. Ageing is another factor to consider in the development of a malignancy.

11. In diabetes an improper supply of insulin to act upon carbohydrates permits an
excessive accumulation of sugar in the blood.

A. Найдите инфинитив в пассивной форме (to be +
V₃), выполняющий в предложении функцию опре­
деления.

Б. На русский язык пассивный инфинитив, как прави­ло, передаётся придаточным определительным предложением с оттенком долженствования или от­несённости к будущему.

Например:

the solution to be used

раствор, который должен быть использован или

раствор, который будет использован

B. Переведите предложения.

1. The method of treatment to be selected defends on the disease.

2. The liver absorbs the substances to be removed from the blood, alters their
chemical structure, makes them soluble, and excretes them in the bile.

3. The person to be immunized is usually inoculated with vaccine by intradermal
subcutaneous or intramuscular injections at regular specified intervals.

4. Though chest pain is commonly taken as a sign of heart disease, there are many
other causes to be considered.

5. The amount of carbon dioxide to be removed increases as cell activity increases,
e.g. during hard physical exercise.

6. An important anatomical fact to be noted in connection with the liver is its
double blood supply in which the organ is unique.

7. The special characteristics of renal blood flow to be kept in mind when conside­
ring vascular diseases are that the renal arterial system is made up of end arteries.

8. The size of the heart is determined by the amount of work to be performed by it
and it is at least as big as the clenched fist of its possessor.

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