Ex.9. Перепишите и письменно переведите 2 и 3 абзацы текста.

TAXATION

Ex.8. Прочитайте текст, устно переведите его и выполните упражнения, данные ниже.

[1] In poetry, spring is a time when a young person’s fancy turns to thoughts of love. But in economics, spring is much less romantic period. It is the season when millions of people in many countries begin to sort their previous year’s income and expense records – the first step in determining their personal income tax.

[2] Tax is money compulsory levied by the state or local authorities on individuals, property or businesses. In modern society, there are many various types of taxes. They are most commonly classified as either direct taxes (personal income tax, corporate profit tax, property tax, inheritance tax, gift tax, real estate tax) or indirect taxes (sales tax, value-added tax, excise tax).

Governments use the money raised from taxes for a variety of purposes. Taxes are considered to have three functions:

(a) fiscal or budgetary: to cover government spending. For example, taxes are used to build schools and hospitals, roads and bridges; to maintain such services as police and firefighting; to pay the salaries of all government officials, such as presidents, legislators, governors, mayors etc.

(b) economic: to promote stable economic growth of the nation.

(c) social: to lessen inequalities in the distribution of income and wealth, i.e. provide assistance for those who need the help. For example, tax revenues are often applied to welfare programs that provide benefits to people who cannot work.

Some taxes can be levied to encourage or discourage certain activities. For example, the aim of imposing high taxes on alcohol and tobacco products is to discourage their use. Moreover, tax revenues help to offset the costs of health care for people who need treatment because of these drugs. Some nations use taxes to encourage marriage. One example is taxing single people at a higher rate than married people.

[3] For more than 2,500 years, tax history has focused on two significant issues: who pays and what is taxed. For most of human history, taxes have been paid by the poor – peasants, slaves, colonists, or conquered peoples¹ – to support the government and the wealthy. Taxation as the responsibility of free citizens is a modern concept that originated with the emergence of constitutional governments – first in England and later in the United States and Western Europe.

[4] In the ancient world to the end of the Roman Empire, taxes constituted a very small part of² the government revenue. Governments owned so much of the wealth within their territories that they did not require additional money to operate. Income from mining operations, tributes from conquered peoples, and gifts from wealthy citizens (though some gifts were required by law) made up the greatest portion of a government's income.

Direct taxes such as the modern income tax were practically unknown at that time, though Rome had an inheritance tax. In the 1st century B.C., Rome under Julius Caesar instituted a 1 percent sales tax.

[5] Taxes of any kind – except those imposed by the church – had little place in the feudal system of the Middle Ages. Kings and nobles³ made profits from land held directly⁴ through payments from those who worked the land. As the social system of the Middle Ages broke up, land became the primary source of wealth – and therefore of taxation. In France, there was an annual tax levied on estimated farm income. In England, land taxes were first based on⁵ area but later on annual rental value⁶.

[6] The establishment of democracies⁷ and the emergence of the modern economic system assisted in bringing about the reform of tax systems. The first modern income tax was adopted in England in 1799 but was abolished from 1816 to 1842. In the USA, an income tax was instituted as a temporary measure during the American Civil War. Ten years later, it was declared unconstitutional and was cancelled. Only in 1913, after the corresponding amendment⁸ to the U.S. Constitution had been adopted, the income tax was reintroduced. Now, personal income taxes are imposed on workers in most modern nations.

Notes: 1) conquered peoples – порабощённые народы

2) to constitute a part of – составлять часть

3) noble – дворянин; аристократ

4) land held directly – земля, которая являлась их собственностью

5) land taxes were first based on… – размер земельного налога сначала определялся…

6) rental value – расчетная [условная] арендная плата

7) democracy – государство с демократической формой правления

8) to adopt an amendment – принять поправку [к Конституции]

Ex.10. Выберите подходящее по смыслу слово (слова) из предлагаемых в скобках вариантов. Предложения перепишите и переведите.

1) Indirect taxes such as [property tax; excise tax; personal income tax; sales tax; corporate profit tax; gift tax; value-added tax; real estate tax] are taxes levied by state authority on purchase of goods and services.

2) The aim of imposing high excise taxes on alcohol and tobacco products is to [lower; encourage; stimulate; reduce; promote; discourage] their use.

3) The money raised from taxes is used for covering government spending, namely [for building or repairing schools and hospitals, roads and bridges; for financing multinational corporations; for paying the salaries of sole proprietors; for supporting army, police and firefighting; for providing benefits to people who cannot work].

4) As the feudal system of the Middle Ages broke up, [inheritance; mining operations; tributes from conquered peoples; land; gifts from wealthy citizens; oil production; gold reserve] became the primary source of wealth – and therefore of taxation.

5) The first income tax as the responsibility of free citizens was adopted [in the ancient world in the Roman Empire; in the Middle Ages; in the 17^th century in France; in the 18^th century in England; in the 18^th century in the U.S.].

6) In the USA, an income tax was [introduced; abolished; canceled; brought in; annulled; instituted] as a temporary measure during the American Civil War.

Ex.11. Задайте вопросы к подчёркнутым словам.

1) In modern society, government revenue comes mainly from taxation.

2) All types of taxes are most commonly divided into two main groups: direct taxes and indirect taxes.

3) Taxes have three functions: budgetary, economic and social.

4) For more than 2,500 years, tax history has focused on two significant issues: who pays and what is taxed.

5) In the ancient world to the end of the Roman Empire, taxes constituted a very small part of the government revenue.

6) A 1% sales tax was first instituted in Rome under Julius Caesar in the 1st century BC.

7) Now, personal income tax is imposed on all working people in most modern nations.

Дата добавления: 2017-02-01; Просмотров: 77; Нарушение авторских прав?; Мы поможем в написании вашей работы!